Research Article Open Access
Volume 3 • Issue 4 • 1000223
J Community Med Health Educ
ISSN: 2161-0711 JCMHE, an open access journal
Community Medicine & Health Education
Oredein and Lewis, J Community Med Health Educ 2013, 3:4
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A Content Analysis of the Source, A
Leading Hip-Hop Magazine
Oredein T* and Lewis MJ
Rutgers School of Public Health, Piscataway NJ USA
Keywords: Hip-hop; Entertainment journalism; Violence; Behavior
modeling; Mediated modeling
Introduction
Since the mid-1980s hip-hop has been criticized for its heavy
violent content and credited with encouraging violence. Although
oen justied as a reection of urban life, the prevalence and portrayal
of violence in hip hop and the potential ramications have become a
focus of research [1]. Several studies found that hip-hop has consistently
had a higher prevalence of violent portrayals [2-4] and greater eects
on violence and aggression than other music genres, such that youth
exposed to rap music were more likely to consider violence as an
acceptable means to resolve social conicts, and were more likely and
to practice violent behaviors in real life [5-13].
e Social Cognitive eory (SCT) posits mechanisms to explain
how exposure to violence in hip-hop can shape violent attitudes,
and behaviors. According to SCT, individuals learn vicariously by
observing others perform behaviors and receive resulting rewards or
punishments, which makes the observer more or less likely to perform
the modeled behaviors [14]. is observational learning occurs
whether the modeling is witnessed in person or through the media.
Viewers are more likely to pay attention to models they consider to
be similar to themselves, attractive, wealthy, and/or powerful
[15-20].
Hip-hop artists are oen of similar age, racial and/or socioeconomic
backgrounds as their fans, and many hail from the same neighborhoods,
increasing the likelihood of attraction and identication with such
celebrities and their lifestyles for youth across various racial and socio-
cultural background combinations [21].
Adolescents oen express the desire to be like celebrities in the
media [22] and such wishful identication oen leads young audiences
to make changes in their appearance, attitudes, values, and activities
accordingly [23,24]
in order to emulate them. According to SCT, hip-
hop provides plenty of opportunities for such mediated modeling via
lyrics, videos, lm and even print [25-28] but so far studies surrounding
the hip-hop culture only focused on lyrical content [29,30] and music
videos [2,31] while print venues, such as monthly hip-hop magazines
have not been assessed. Hip-hop magazines are also popular media
that have the potential to impact and inuence their audience. As a
journalistic venue, the magazines discuss the professional and personal
lives of celebrities, and where relevant reference violence in their bodies
*Corresponding author: Oredein T, Rutgers School of Public Health, Piscataway
NJ USA, E-mail: [email protected]
Received June 20, 2013; Accepted July 17, 2013; Published July 19, 2013
Citation: Oredein T, Lewis MJ (2013) Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A Content
Analysis of the Source, A Leading Hip-Hop Magazine. J Community Med Health
Educ 3: 223. doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Copyright: © 2013 Oredein T, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
source are credited.
of work, as well as any real-life violent infractions. is additional
exposure may contribute to reinforcing violence as a norm especially as
young audiences are more likely to be interested in celebrity aairs and
look to celebrities to learn how to act and how to achieve prestige [32].
erefore, we explored the prevalence of violence appearing in e
Source: e Magazine of Hip-hop Music, Culture and Politics, a popular
hip-hop magazine in order to answer the following research questions:
1) What are the frequencies, and categories of violence occurring
in e Source Magazine’s covers?
2) What are the frequencies, and categories of violence occurring
in feature articles in e Source Magazine?
3) What are the frequencies, and categories of violence occurring
in photographs that accompany feature articles in e Source
Magazine?
Methods
We chose e Source Magazine because it is the longest-running
and most popular hip-hop publication and has a large minority and
urban youth readership [33]. It is available in e New York Public
Library system. Since large portions of issues were not available
for 1988 through 1990 the study excludes the rst three years of the
publication. e sampling frame was all issues between 1991 and
2006. We randomly selected three issues per year using the web-based
Research Randomizer
random number generator and photocopied
each magazine’s cover, table of contents, and relevant articles along
with their related photographs. e nal sample was 48 magazines.
We coded each magazine’s cover because covers are generally
Abstract
Objectives: This study seeks to determine the prevalence of violence in a popular hip-hop entertainment
magazine, a previously overlooked medium.
Methods: We performed a content analysis on a random sample of 48 issues of The Source Magazine and coded
magazine covers, and feature articles about celebrities and accompanying photographs for the presence of violent
content.
Results: 35% of covers contained at least one violent category in text or graphics. Nearly 80% of feature articles
contained at least one violent category in the text and approximately 30% of feature articles were accompanied by at
least one violent graphic.
Conclusion: Findings suggest that The Source Magazine and possibly other hip-hop entertainment venues are a
potential source of mediated modeling for violent behaviors.
Volume 3 • Issue 4 • 1000223
J Community Med Health Educ
ISSN: 2161-0711 JCMHE, an open access journal
designed to attract readers. Covers were coded for celebrity subject,
occupation, and any violent graphics or text. We also coded celebrity-
based “Feature Articles” because they have been a part of the magazine’s
formatting across the span of the publication, and it is the only element
consistently appearing in every issue. Furthermore, e Source
Magazine’s feature articles mostly consist of interviews with high-
prole celebrities. e interviews provide an opportunity for modeling
behaviors as it is a forum for celebrities, who oen have role model
status, to discuss their bodies of work in addition to their real lives. We
identied “Feature Articles” by the listings under the heading “Feature
Articles” in e Source’s “Table of Contents”. A Feature Article was
eligible to be coded if its subject was a specic celebrity or group entity.
Montage articles featuring several unrelated artists or groups (i.e. “e
100 Greatest R&B Singers of All Time”), articles solely about fashion,
and articles about violence within the hip-hop, minority, and/or urban
communities, were not coded. However, coders recorded if the latter
category was present. We recorded relevant articles for subject persona,
occupation and violent reputation. All relevant articles were coded at
the sentence level for violent content and anti-violent statements within
the text. Pictures accompanying the articles were also coded for violent
graphics. e text was also reviewed for illustrative quotes. Relevant
examples of violent categories were recorded during the coding process
for inclusion in the manuscript.
Coding
e coding scheme was developed deductively based on the research
questions and information from prior research [34] and inductively
based on initial reviews of e Source Magazine’s feature articles.
Violence was dened as aggressive physical or verbal actions occurring
in real life or art projects (i.e. lyrics, videos, movies). We coded each
article for violence according to the following violent categories:
feuding/verbal violence; physical assault; murder/attempted murder;
weapons ownership or use; sexual assault; gang activity; robbery;
vandalism; being the recipient of violence or some other violence (e.g.
self-inicted violence). Each mention of general violence in music (i.e.
“gangsta rap”, “hardcore lyrics”), violent reputations (i.e. terms “thug”,
“gangsta”, “G”, “O.G.”, “live nigga”, and “street soldier” or other
terms indicating a tough persona), violent neighborhoods, and violent
metaphors were coded as well. Coding was not mutually exclusive. We
also coded the article’s layout to capture whether it included enlarged,
prominently placed excerpts from the article containing violent text.
We coded each unique photograph within each Feature Article
for weapons; violent accessories (i.e. clothing, tattoos or jewelry with
violent graphics (e.g. picture of guns); aggressive body language or
posturing (i.e. scowling, ghting stances, hand gestures); and/or other
violence (e.g. spattered blood, bullet holes). Each violent image in a
photograph was coded. Coding was not mutually exclusive.
A second coder, a public health doctoral student at the time of the
study, independently coded a sub-set of 20 randomly selected magazine
articles. Cohen’s Kappa coecient was calculated to determine the
percent agreement beyond chance. e average agreement was 0.791
across text variables some of which had moderate agreement and
others of which had near perfect agreement [35] (range: 62.5–100), and
.982 across photograph variables (range: 87.5–100).
Statistical analysis
We used the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS®) version
14.0 for all analysis. We ran Chi-square analyses and used a standard
alpha level of p < 0.05 to determine statistical signicance.
Results
Cover analysis
Each of the 48 covers in the sample featured a celebrity. More than
a third of covers contained at least one instance of violence in the form
of weaponry (6.3%, n=3), violent accessories (12.5%, n=6), aggressive
body language (14.6%, n=7) or other violence (22.9%, n=11), mainly
violent language in headlines highlighting features within the issue
(Table 1).
Feature article analysis
We coded 218 feature articles. An average of 4.29 (s.d.=1.48)
feature articles per magazine met the coding criteria. Articles averaged
4.5 pages (s.d.=2.10) in length. e majority of featured subjects were
primarily rappers (85.3, n=186).
Almost 80% of articles contained at least one instance of violence in
the text, and almost half had ve or more. e most prevalent category
was having violent reputations, appearing in 45% of articles.
“[Slim] was a gangsta...By all means necessary [36].”
Weapons appeared in approximately 40% of articles and the
majority of these (81.6%) mentioned rearms.
“…Free was released from Tehachapi State Prison aer serving
nine months for possession of a SKS assault rie and kidnapping…
[37]”
“Spice pulls his Glock from his jeans, lays it on the table and slides
comfortably into the nearest chair [38].”
General mentions of violent media (i.e. music, videos and lms)
appeared in about 40% of articles.
“Fat Joe won’t be going so anytime soon, as you’ll see by the
majority of straight-up hardcore songs on the album. Even Pu
Daddy’s contribution, the CD’s title track, sounds like the dark, piano-
and-strings driven soundtrack to an urban crime tale [39].”
Feuding appeared in 36.7% of articles.
“… [Nas] went on a one-man rampage against New York radio
station Hot 97 for not allowing him to bring gallows onstage to
symbolize the lynching of his then nemesis, Jay-Z [40].”
“Major rappers like Beanie Sigel and Jadakiss and Nas, Prodigy and
Jay are now going at each other with fervor [41].”
Recipients of violence appeared in 34% of articles. e majority
of recipients (61.3%) were murder victims, followed by non-fatal
shootings (37.3%).
Table 1: Magazine analysis.
(%) (N)
Magazines Coded - 48
Any Violence in Magazine 100.0 48
Covers Coded 100.0 48
Cover Graphic of Celebrity 100.0 48
Any Cover Violence 35.4 17
Articles Coded 100.0 218
Articles with Any Violence 79.4 173
Articles with only 1 depiction of violence 5.0 11
Articles with 5+ depictions of violence 48.2 105
Pictures 100.0 959
Pictures with Any Violence 28.4 62
Citation: Oredein T, Lewis MJ (2013) Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A Content Analysis of the Source, A Leading Hip-Hop Magazine. J Community
Med Health Educ 3: 223. doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Page 2 of 5
Volume 3 • Issue 4 • 1000223
J Community Med Health Educ
ISSN: 2161-0711 JCMHE, an open access journal
“…an unknown assailant red a 9mm pistol multiple times into the
black vehicle’s rear window. e young man in the Dodges’ backseat
attempted to retaliate but was shot nine times in the process [42].”
Roughly 30% of articles made mentioned living in violent
neighborhoods.
“Raised on the rugged streets of Chicago’s famously gang and pimp
saturated West Side…. [43].”
Almost 15% of articles use a violent metaphor, most of which
(71.4%) were posed by the article’s author.
“As Mike the driver artfully negotiates this boat of a stretch limo
through evening mid-Manhattan trac, Knight and Kenner strategize
a little, but mostly they sit in silence like two hit men on their way to do
what they gotta do [44] ”
“…and his eyelids drop like two guillotines falling in slow motion…
[45]”
Fieen percent of articles mention other violence such as animal
cruelty or suicide. Eleven percent boldly featured a violent text excerpt
within the article’s layout.
Expressions of anti-violence were present in 35% of articles, and
included sentiments or actions taken to reduce violence.
“He employed many from the city of Compton at Ruthless Records
and was quick to contribute some of his big bank to anti-gang eorts...
[46]” (Table 2).
Photograph analysis
Collectively we coded 959 photographs, 62 of which had at least
one violent graphic. Almost 30% of articles contained at least one
photograph featuring violent graphics. Aggressive body language was
the most common category occurring in about 84% (n=52) of violent
photographs (Figure 1 and Table 3).
Discussion
Several components of hip-hop culture have been analyzed
for violence and subsequently linked with aggressive and violent
behaviors, however this is the rst time that a hip-hop magazine has
been reviewed for its violent content, and considered for potential
implications. With 84.5% of articles containing violence within the
text and/or photographs. e Source Magazine is a potential source
of mediated modeling for violent behaviors. Of the articles containing
violence, 95% had more than one violent depiction, and 73.3% had
ve or more depictions. As magazine covers and content are designed
to attract readers, the celebrities featured in and on e Source
Magazine were most likely chosen to cater to and meet the demand
of the magazine’s audience. It is possible that celebrities with violent,
controversial or otherwise colorful lives and careers are deemed to be
more marketable with respect to magazine sales, and such celebrities
are therefore featured more oen and more prominently. Nonetheless,
the high prevalence is still of particular concern as repeated exposure
to violence in the media not only can normalize violence [47] but it
may contribute to desensitization [48], resulting in reduced tendencies
to intervene in violent scenarios [49], help others in distress
[50], and
have sympathy for victims of violence [51,52]. It also may make it
easier for others to commit violence without having to experience the
negative emotions and psychological reactions [25-28].
With respect to violent categories, having a violent “thug”
reputation was the most prevalent and perhaps it is indicative of
the importance paid to the phenomenon of the violent identity and
reputation that is so pervasive in hip-hop culture [29,53]. Weapons
were the second most prevalent category and rearms specically were
mentioned in one-third of articles, which exceeds the 27% of music
videos featuring guns [2], and their 18.7% prevalence in primetime
television shows [54]. Feuding was the third most common category
represented in 37% of articles. One issue (December 2001) designated
itself “e Beef Issue” and interviewed four subjects that were involved
in high prole feuds at the time. In pictures, aggressive body language
Table 2: Prevalence of articles that contain violence according to violent categories.
Violence Category Total Articles (%) Total Articles (N)
Total 100.0 218
Any Violence 79.4 173
Violent Categories
Violent Reputation 45.0 98
Violent Media 40.8 89
Weapon 39.9 87
Feud/Conict 36.7 80
Recipient of Violence 34.4 75
Violent Neighborhood 29.4 64
Fighting/Assault 23.9 52
Murder 21.1 46
Gang Activity 16.5 36
Violent Metaphor 14.7 32
Robbery 9.6 21
Vandalism 4.6 10
Sexual Assault 3.2 7
Other Violence 14.7 32
Anti Violence 34.9 76
Mortensen, Shawn; Photographer (1993)
Figure 1: Photograph of rapper Tupac Shakur containing weapons, violent
accessories, and aggressive body language.
Table 3: Prevalence of articles that contain at least one violent photograph.
Photo Category Total Articles (%) Total Articles (Frequency)
Total Articles 100.0 218
Articles with any Violent
Graphics
28.4 62
Violent/Aggressive Body
Language
23.9 52
Weapons 4.1 9
Violent Accessories 3.2 7
Other Violent Graphics 4.6 10
Citation: Oredein T, Lewis MJ (2013) Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A Content Analysis of the Source, A Leading Hip-Hop Magazine. J Community
Med Health Educ 3: 223. doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Page 3 of 5
Volume 3 • Issue 4 • 1000223
J Community Med Health Educ
ISSN: 2161-0711 JCMHE, an open access journal
was the most popular, again perhaps related to the importance of
violent identity and reputation.
e Source magazine was chosen because it is the longest running
hip-hop magazine with a large youth readership. Even with the
increase in electronic media, e Source had an estimated readership
of 1.5 million in 2008, and has a large minority and youth following
[33]. However, since this study only included one magazine, it is
impossible to discern if the violence is excessive for hip-hop, music,
pop culture or entertainment magazines in general. e sample was
also limited to three issues per year. Some issues may have contained
inated mentions of violence due to articles covering the high-prole,
violent deaths of popular rappers. Due to our interest in examining
modeling, only selected feature articles about celebrities were coded.
However, in all probability this resulted in an underestimation of
violence appearing in e Source Magazine as other articles, columns,
photographs, and advertisements, many with celebrity foci, were not
included in the analysis. Also, most issues were photocopied in black
and white, making it dicult to assess some graphic concepts such as
identifying certain tattoos, which likely resulted in an underestimation
of violent graphics. Lastly, this study did not analyze the way violence
was framed with respect to positive or negative portrayals, which may
also inuence the way violence is interpreted.
We suggest that hip-hop music entertainment magazines, and
possibly other similar venues, have the potential to impact their young
audiences. Violent perpetrators in hip-hop culture are oen high-prole
subjects with whom their followers identify and who they revere, so
future research should explore additional hip-hop media outlets such
as websites, and urban radio stations for violence. In addition, there
may be additional eects when the featured violence can be perceived
as real as opposed to artistic portrayals. Future research should focus
on the positive or negative portrayals, prevalence and presentation of
real-life violent transgressions, as well as the audience’s perceptions of
violence, varying mechanisms for processing violence, and variables
that moderate these processes in order to better inform violence
prevention interventions.
Acknowledgments
We are extremely grateful to Olivia Wackowski, Ph.D. who was instrumental in
determining inter-coder reliability.
Human Subjects Statement
There were no human subjects involved, therefore no IRB review or
permissions were required.
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Scharrer E Violent (2003) Media Content: A Cross-Media, Longitudinal
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Citation: Oredein T, Lewis MJ (2013) Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A
Content Analysis of the Source, A Leading Hip-Hop Magazine. J Community
Med Health Educ 3: 223. doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Citation: Oredein T, Lewis MJ (2013) Violence in Hip-Hop Journalism: A Content Analysis of the Source, A Leading Hip-Hop Magazine. J Community
Med Health Educ 3: 223. doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000223
Page 5 of 5
